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In SICP, the authors state (Section 1.1) that there are three basic "mechanisms" of programming languages:
primitive expressions, which represent the simplest entities the language is concerned with
means of combination, by which compound elements are built from simpler ones
means of abstraction, by which compound elements can be named and manipulated as units
How can I analyze a mainstream programming language (Java, for example) in terms of these elements or mechanisms?
The distinction between primitive expressions, means of combination and means of abstraction is a useful one when modelling programming languages. Note that this is not an intrinsic property of the language: you can't point at any language definition and say “this feature is unambiguously a primitive expression, that feature is unambiguously a means of combination”. The distinction is a property of the model, and complex models can resist classification.
A textbook example of these three concepts is the lambda calculus, which has exactly one of each:
When you get to languages with more features, the modeling can become more ambiguous. Generally speaking, a primitive expression is one that you can't or won't break down into primitive components. But it's like the atom: it's primitive until science marches on. For example, there is a variant of the lambda-calculus in which variables use numbers rather than names (de Bruijn indices), which is particularly convenient when modeling lambda-terms for computer proofs; and in computer proofs, integers are broken down into constituent parts. So in these models, variables aren't primitive expressions after all.
In (a typical model of) Java, primitive expressions are primarily constants and variables. Means of combinations include the numerous operators; more precisely, “additive expression” is a means of combination with two slots (the left-hand side and the right-hand side), or with three slots (the two sides plus the operator) if you include both A + B and A - B under that name (in which case the operators + and - would be primitive constructs in their own right). Other means of combination include sequences of instruction I ; J, loop constructs while (…) {…}, and so on. Then you have constructs like variable declarations, function definitions, class definitions and so on which are both means of combinations (they combine parameter names and types, bodies, initializers, …) and means of abstraction (because they define names for reuse). It is in fact quite common that means of abstraction are also means of combination: they combine a name with its definition.
Rough stab:
Expressions are just that; what constitutes an expression in Java. I don't know if that would expand to include statements or not.
Combinations would include compound expressions, (variables?,) statements, methods, the class mechanism, and packages. Modules, too, once they're in the language.
In Java, the simplest means of abstraction is a class: nothing may exist outside of a class. There are, perhaps, "layers" of abstraction: a static method is arguably simpler than an instance method, because it doesn't require an instance.
Generics offer an additional layer of abstraction (and frustration).
Here is my basic categorization. I'm trying to draw a paralel with LISP.
Primitive expressions
Parallel in LISP: atoms, numbers and lists.
Means of Combination (Ways you can build compound data-structures)
Parallel in LISP: Cons cells, lists
Means of Abstraction
+, -, *, /, ...)Parallel in LISP: Functions, syntactic sugar like let, define
I don't know if it is correct, but the way I understand the division is as follows:
primitive expressions, These would be, things such as >>,+,*,/,int,boolean,variables,methods etc.
means of combination, This can be debatable, either its things like + and concact, or its talking about more advanced ideas like inheritance vs composition and the methods to do that. Injection, the new operator, extending etc.
means of abstraction, This would be the syntax used to name variables, and methods, as well as means of creating interfaces, classes, static classes, overloading methods etc.
However, its possible you need to give us more info from the book so we know exactly what is meant there.
means of combination -- that it's tough to figure out what exactly belongs there. Nice answer, though.
A programming language is generally defined by its syntax and its semantics. Both of these will be defined in the standards for the language.
The syntax outlines how to write a valid program and the semantics defines what that valid program means.
In your cases, the syntax will tell you what your primitives are, how you combine them, and how you abstract them. The semantics will tell you what the combinations and abstractions mean.
For example, the syntax will tell you how to write a valid for loop. The semantics will tell you what the for loop does.
If you really want to start to analyze a programming language, grab a copy of the standard and see what is in there. I would really start off with a simple language, like C, before delving into Java. I would also read the rest of the book. Learning why programming langauges work the way they do has made me a better programmer, even though I don't implement compilers.
x = ++x; is not valid even if a typical compiler would accept it.
Nov 20, 2011 at 21:27